Before the Warring States period, the various princes contended for annexation and competed for the crown. Shang Yang betrayed his promise and broke the alliance.
The fate of the world is unpredictable, and prosperity does not necessarily last forever. The Xia Dynasty once flourished under Emperor Yao and Shun, but today it is the Southern Sea that shines brightly with Chinese glory, all within a span of 5,000 years.
The Zhou Dynasty originated from the Western Rong and Northern Di tribes, occupying the Central Plains to inherit the orthodox tradition. However, when the Zhou king's virtue declined and his power waned, the vassals became powerful. The Spring and Autumn period saw the rise of five hegemons, who took turns ruling.
Among the five hegemons, the Jin state was the most prosperous, but its vast territory and strong rivers eventually led to its decline and division into the three states of Han, Wei, and Zhao. The Jin dynasty never recovered from this downfall, a case of self-destruction.
The Qin state originated from the Western Qiang and Di tribes, with a history of bravery on the western borders. It was only after Duke Wen of Chu achieved hegemony that the Qin state began to be recognized as one of the vassal states. However, the Qin state rapidly rose to power and eventually became the ruling dynasty, an example of how decline can lead to prosperity.
By the time of the Warring States period, the Zhou royal house had shrunk to a tiny territory within Luoyang, no larger than the small state of Zhongshan. This is an example of how prosperity does not necessarily last forever.
In the past, the 1,800 vassal states created by King Wu of Zhou had dwindled to just a few dozen, with half of them already absorbed into the Chu state, creating the north-south divide that would characterize China for the next 2,000 years. By this time, only eight states were qualified to contend for hegemony: Chu, Qin, Qi, Wei, Zhao, Han, Yan, and Yue.
The Wei state had initially gained the upper hand, with advantages in geography and population, reenacting the Spring and Autumn period's pattern of hegemony. However, the Chu state had been seeking to unify the vassals under its rule since King Zhuang's time, while the Qi state had been striving for dominance since Duke Huan's rise to power. The Qin state aimed to inherit the Zhou dynasty's legacy and control the Central Plains.
It seemed that Wei's King Hui would have to face challenges from Chu, Qi, Qin, Zhao, and Yue. So, who would be qualified to take over King Hui's mantle of hegemony? Among the contenders, it was clear that only Chu, Qi, and Qin had the qualifications.
Since the time of King Xuan of Chu, there had been a period of peace and rest. At that time, the power of the three Jin states (Wei, Zhao, and Han) and the two states of Qin and Qi was increasing daily, competing with each other, especially Wei and Qi were flourishing. King Huiwen of Wei launched eastern and western campaigns, invading south and fighting north, becoming the overlord of the world, dominating the whole country.
At that time, Chu and Qin were related by marriage, supporting each other, jointly resisting the southern invasion and western campaign of Wei and Qi, and achieved victories in Shangluo and Sishui. In the fifth year of King Xuan of Chu, the three Jin states (Wei, Zhao, and Han) launched a western campaign against Qin, Qin fought with Wei and Zhao in Shanbei and Hexi, and with Wei and Han in Luonan, the three Jin states joined forces, defeating the Qin army repeatedly, the Wei army took Huayin and Tongguan in Hexi, the Zhao army captured Yuguang and Yan'an in Shanbei, and the Han army took Lingbao to Tongguan.
In the southeastern part of Shaanxi, the armies of Wei and Han joined forces, greatly defeating the Qin army in Luonan, pointing their swords at Shangzhou. When King Xuan of Chu heard the news, he led an army of 100,000 men, passing through Wuguan (Wu Pass) and Shangdu (Danfeng), to Shangzhou, engaging in a great battle with the combined forces of Han and Wei.
The next year, the combined forces of Chu and Qin, numbering 180,000 men, defeated the 200,000-strong combined forces of Wei and Han at Danyang in Shangzhou, and also greatly defeated the combined forces of Wei and Han in Luonan that same year. The Wei army retreated to Tongguan and Anyi, while the Han army retreated to the three rivers area in Luodi.
At that time, Chu was a great power, with a vast territory of over 3,000 miles, and an army of over 700,000 men, having been related by marriage to Qin for generations. Therefore, King Xuan of Chu gave the area north of the ancient road of Shangzhou to Duke Xian of Qin, who was deeply grateful.
Later, King Xuan of Chu led his army northward, fighting with the Wei army at Luyang and Yuzhou, greatly defeating the Wei army, retaking Luyang and Yuzhou, and besieging the Wei army in Xuchang. The Qin army fought with the Wei army at Shimen and Shaoliang, although the Qin army was greatly defeated by the Wei army, they still could not retake the land west of the river.
Years later, Qin Xiangong died and his son Xiaogong succeeded him at the age of 21. In the first year of Qin Xiaogong's reign, there were six powerful countries east of the rivers and mountains of Qin: Qi Weiwang, Chu Xuānwáng, Wei Huiwenwang, Yan Daowang, Han Aihou, and Zhao Chenghou stood together. There were still more than a dozen small countries between Huainan and Sishang. Chu, Wei, and Han bordered Qin. Wei built the Great Wall from northwest of present-day Shaanxi Huaxian to north along the Luohe River basin, passing through Jingbian and Yulin, northeast to the Hequ area, occupying the land of Shangjun in the north. Chu had Hanzhong and Shangyong in the south, with Ba Wu and Qianzhong. The Zhou royal house was weak, and the vassals competed for hegemony, competing to annex each other. Qin was still a remote and backward country in Yongzhou, subject to Wei's bullying in the east and relying on Chu's support in the south, unable to participate in the alliances of the Central Plains vassals. Therefore, Qin Xiaogong worked hard to govern, lived frugally, widely bestowed favors, recruited soldiers and bought horses, and made rewards clear. He also issued a proclamation to the world saying: "In the past, my Qin Mugong governed from Qishan to Yongzhou, cultivated virtue and used military force, took Guanzhong and Shanbei, pacified the Jin chaos in the east, with the Yellow River as the boundary, and ruled over the Rongdi in the west. The land was expanded by a thousand miles, and the Son of Heaven enfeoffed him as a viscount. All the vassals congratulated him, laying the foundation for the great cause of the state. This is how glorious and honorable it is! In the past, when Duke Xian, Duke Wu, and Duke Jing were in power, family affairs were not peaceful, and the country was plagued by internal worries, with no time to attend to external matters. The three Jin states attacked and seized the land west of the river from my ancestors, and all the vassals looked down on Qin and its people. This is how hateful it is! When Xiangong ascended to the throne, he pacified the borders, moved the capital to Yongcheng, and wanted to launch a campaign eastward to recover the former territory of Mugong and restore his policies. I have always remembered my ancestors' intentions and felt pain in my heart. If there are guests, officials, or scholars from all over the world who can come up with extraordinary plans to make Qin strong and prosperous, I will respect their seniority and share the land with them, enjoying the good fortune together." Then, he sent troops to besiege Shancheng in the east and behead the Rongdi king in the west. However, Wei Huiwenwang was the strongest in the world at that time, and Qin Xiaogong had no power to resist him, suffering repeated humiliation from the state of Wei.
At that time, Wei Yang heard the Qin Xiaogong's edict to the world and immediately sold his pots and pans, borrowed money from all sides, and managed to meet with Qin Xiaogong. Wei Yang was originally a native of the state of Wei, but for the sake of fame and fortune, he did not hesitate to sell out his wife, daughter, ancestors, and masters, seeking glory and spreading his notorious name far and wide. Previously, he had relied on someone to meet with King Huiwen of Wei, and in order to curry favor with the king, he had severed his ties with the state of Wei, changed his surname to Wei, and named himself Yang, demonstrating his loyalty. When King Huiwen of Wei listened to Wei Yang's so-called rich country and strong military tactics, he said: "Have you not heard that those who are benevolent have no enemies, and those who are righteous can conquer all?" He did not use Wei Yang. Wei Yang went to Qin and changed his surname to Qin and named himself Yang again. When Qin Xiaogong summoned Wei Yang, he was reused. Therefore, Wei Yang began to reform the law and repair the punishment, imposing various cruel punishments on the people of Qin that were unbearable to see. The result of the cruel officials' harsh punishments could only be to treat the people of Qin as tools for killing and slaughter. Wei Yang's military achievements were recorded by cutting off heads and occupying cities, and on the surface, the Qin army was very brave, but in reality, they were all motivated by fame and fortune, treating human lives like food, and exterminating humanity. As a result, the state of Qin and its army won the reputation of being a country of tigers and wolves, and an army of jackals and wolves, which was diametrically opposed to the so-called filial piety of Qin Xiaogong. However, can training people to become evil wolves really make them invincible in the world? The ministers Gan Long and Du Zuo did not think so, and they said to Xiaogong: "If Qin wants to go east and form an alliance with the feudal lords, it should first eliminate the misunderstanding of the people of the Central Plains towards Qin, practice great righteousness in the world, spread virtue and kindness to all people, and gain trust from the four seas. This is the foundation of enriching the country and strengthening the military." Wei Yang's law is a technique without ruler or father, and when Qin dominates the world, it will also be the end of its strong crossbow. Qin Xiaogong was eager for quick success and immediate benefits, and he did not listen to the advice of Gan Long, Du Zuo, and others.
In the 16th year of Chu Xuanwang, Wei Huìwén Wáng launched a southern invasion and clashed with the Chu army south of Xuchang and northwest of Yuzhou, Gu Cheng. Both sides deployed 200,000 troops each. The Chu army suffered a great defeat at the hands of the Wei army south of Xuchang. Han Ai Hou sent out 100,000 troops to assist the Wei army in attacking the Chu army. Seeing this, Chu Xuanwang retreated and defended Fangye, Ruzhou, Yuzhou, and Gu Cheng, which were then occupied by the Han and Wei armies.
Wei Yang took advantage of this opportunity and led the Qin army eastward, engaging the Wei army west of the Yellow River and defeating them at Huayin. The army then pointed towards Tongguan, Hancheng, and Anyi. At that time, the main force of the Wei army was stuck in a stalemate with the Chu army at Xuchang and Yuzhou, leaving the defenses at Huayin and west of the Yellow River relatively weak.
Wei Huìwén Wáng heard the news and hastily dispatched 200,000 troops from Jincheng and Jinzhong to Anyi. He defeated Wei Yang at Hancheng and Tongguan, repelling the Qin army's attack. Wei Yang then led his army southward, attacking the Han army at Luochuan and expanding their territory north of Shangnan.
In the 27th year of Chu Xuan Wang, that is, in 343 BC, King Huiwen of Wei ordered his general Pang Juan to lead an army of 300,000 soldiers to attack Zhao and Qi. The king of Qi, using Sun Bin's tactics of feigning weakness and luring the enemy deep into their territory, defeated Pang Juan at the Battle of Maling, almost annihilating the entire Wei army.
The state of Wei had been weakened by years of continuous warfare, and this defeat further damaged its national strength. The position of King Huiwen as the overlord of the world began to shake, while the king of Qi became increasingly arrogant, thinking that he was the only one who could be the overlord of the world.
Wei Yang took advantage of the situation and led an army of 200,000 Qin soldiers eastward to attack the Wei army, with the intention of capturing the land west of the Yellow River. The Zhao army also took advantage of the situation and launched a full-scale attack on the city of Anyang in Wei.
King Huiwen of Wei faced the invasion of his country by the armies of Qi, Zhao, and Qin, and ordered his generals to fight back against each of these enemies. However, due to the defeat of his general Wei Gongzi at the hands of Wei Yang, he was forced to cede territory to the state of Qi and give up the city of Anyang to the state of Zhao in exchange for a peace treaty.
Alas! The state of Wei had just suffered a great defeat at Maling, losing tens of thousands of soldiers. Now it had lost again at the Battle of Huaxi, suffering losses of over 100,000 soldiers. Its national strength was declining with each passing year.
Wei Gongzi was a close friend of Wei Yang, and in the past, when Wei Yang was down on his luck, Wei Gongzi provided him with great help and support. Without Wei Gongzi's assistance, Wei Yang would have long since starved to death on the streets of Wei.
Wei Gongzi led the vanguard of 200,000 Wei troops from Anyi and Luoyang, and encountered Wei Yang's forward troops at Huayin. Wei Yang thought that his well-trained army was invincible, so he drummed up a battle cry and charged into the fray with 50,000 Qin soldiers.
However, a great general emerged from the Wei camp, wielding a long sword and charging straight at the Qin army. This general was none other than Wei Jia, a renowned warrior of Wei who was already over 40 years old and had a white beard. With his sword flashing in the sunlight, he cut down several Qin generals and charged into the enemy ranks like a hot knife through butter.
The Qin soldiers were terrified, and their morale plummeted as they retreated in disarray. Wei Jia spotted Wei Yang and pointed his sword at him, shouting: "You shameless traitor! You sold out your lord and sought glory for yourself, without any loyalty or filial piety. I'll take your dog's life!"
Wei Yang was frightened and turned to flee, but Wei Jia chased after him on horseback, brandishing his sword. The Qin generals rushed over to protect their commander, but Wei Jia shouted: "Anyone who blocks my way will die!" His sword sliced through the air, striking down several Qin generals.
Wei Yang took advantage of the chaos to escape into the safety of his own ranks. Just then, drums began to beat from both the east and west, signaling the arrival of reinforcements from both sides. Wei Yang sounded the retreat and withdrew 30 miles.
The next day, the two armies faced off again, and Wei Yang rode forward to pay his respects to Wei Gongzi. "Wei Gongzi, I have come to apologize," he said. Wei Gongzi replied: "We were once close friends, but now you've turned against me. Why?"
Wei Yang explained that he had been forced to attack Wei by the Qin king, and produced a letter as proof. The letter read: "The Qin king is cruel and heartless! He has taken my family hostage and is forcing me to lead an army against Wei. I am deeply grateful for your past kindnesses, but I fear that I will not be able to repay them even if I were to die trying.
"However, now that you have come to confront me, it's the perfect opportunity for us to join forces and defeat the Qin army together. If I were to betray you, I would surely suffer a terrible fate."
Wei Gongzi was deeply moved by the letter, but his general Wei Jia cautioned him against trusting Wei Yang. "He is willing to sell out his own family and lord for personal gain," Wei Jia said. "How can we trust someone like that?"
But Wei Gongzi refused to listen, and instead ordered his troops to launch a surprise attack on the Qin camp at midnight, in coordination with Wei Yang's supposed betrayal of the Qin army.
However, this turned out to be a trap set by Wei Yang, and the Wei army fell into an ambush. They were defeated and forced to retreat, and Wei Gongzi was captured. Wei Jia led the remaining troops back to Tongguan.
Wei Yang then used Wei Gongzi as leverage to demand that the king of Wei cede the land west of the Yellow River to Qin. The king reluctantly agreed, and Wei Yang's reputation as a cunning strategist spread far and wide.
But Wei Yang's treachery would eventually catch up with him, and he would suffer a terrible fate. This is a story for another time.
From that day on, the king of Qin looked at Wei Yang in a different light, and their relationship underwent a fundamental change.
In the 28th year of King Xuan of Chu, that is, in 342 BC, there were still more than a dozen small countries between Huai North and Si North. King Xuan of Chu led 300,000 Chu troops to advance eastward to Huai North, while King Wei of Qi led 200,000 Qi troops southward to Si North, and the king of Yue, also named Hou, led 200,000 Yue troops out of Guangling (Yangzhou) and marched northward to Huai North. Even Song Junyan led an army of 100,000 eastward to Xuzhou. The four armies clashed in a fierce battle for control of the thousand-li fertile land of Huai North and Si North. King Xuan of Chu assessed the situation and first fought against the 200,000 Yue troops led by King Hou of Yue in Huai North, defeating them greatly in Huai'an and Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, and forcing King Hou to retreat back to Guangling with his defeated army. King Xuan then marched northward, defeating the Song army and Qi army in Xuzhou, capturing Xuzhou, and forcing Song Junyan to flee back to Shangqiu with his remaining troops. The Chu army then clashed with the Qi army in Zaozhuang and Linqu, with both sides holding their ground for several months and each having victories and defeats. In the end, the Chu army concentrated its superior forces and defeated the Qi army greatly in Zaozhuang, and then again defeated the Qi army in Linqu, forcing them to retreat eastward and capturing the coastal areas of Rizhao, Shandong Province, and Lianyungang, Jiangsu Province. The battle for control of Huai North and Si North ended with a complete victory for the Chu army, and except for several small countries in Shandong Province, more than a dozen small countries in Huai North and Si North were incorporated into the territory of Chu.
When Chu Xuanwang was at war with the armies of Qi, Yue and Song in Huai Bei, Wei Yang ignored the alliance between Chu and Qin and led 200,000 Qin soldiers to take advantage of the fact that the main force of the Chu army had gone east. At Languan, the Qin army split into two routes: one went east from Luosuo and the other went east from Shangluo Ancient Road. The two armies met in Shangzhou, drove away hundreds of Chu soldiers stationed in Danjiang area southwest of Shangzhou, then marched east to capture Danying and Shaoshi Pass (Wuguan) guarded by thousands of Chu soldiers, and sent a large army to garrison Shangluo, Danying and Shaoshi Pass. The territory north of the Dan River, west of Shaoshi, and the entire Shangluo Ancient Road were incorporated into Qin's territory. When Chu Xuanwang heard the news, he ordered 100,000 Chu soldiers to be stationed in Huai Bei, Xuzhou and Pixiang, and led 200,000 Chu soldiers back to Jingzhou. Chu Xuanwang sent an envoy to ask Qin Xiaogong: "Chu and Qin have been allies for generations, with a close relationship like brothers. In the past, I sent troops to help Qin defeat the three Jin states and gave your father, Duke Xian of Qin, 700 miles of land from Luosuo to Lingbao. It was agreed that Shangzhou and the ancient road of Shangzhou would be jointly owned and managed by Chu and Qin. Now you take advantage of my eastward expedition and send troops to attack Shangluo, driving away my garrison in Shangzhou, Danying and Shaoshi. What is your reason? Do you want to tear up the alliance between Chu and Qin and become enemies with Chu?"
Duke Xiao of Qin wept and said, "All these are the deeds of Wei Yang behind my back. I can only blame myself for entrusting him with the military power of 200,000 troops in the past, and now it's too late to regret." The envoy from Chu returned to Jingdu to report to King Xuan of Chu. As soon as the envoy left, Duke Xiao of Qin immediately sent a messenger to Wei Yang, saying, "You have made great contributions to Qin, and I originally wanted to share the rule of Qin with you. Now that King Xuan of Chu has sent an envoy, he will surely raise troops to punish us. What can we do? I will grant you 700 li of land in Shangzhou, Luonan, and Danfeng, and appoint you as a marquis, enfeoffing you as Shang. You can establish yourself independently and don't need to return to Xianyang." Wei Yang didn't know what was going on, but he followed the order and established himself as Marquis Shang, changing his name to Shang Yang. He then ordered his soldiers to build a large-scale city wall from Shangluo to Shangnan (in present-day Danfeng County), blocking the ancient road from Shangzhou to Shangnan, and reinforcing the Xiaoxi Pass. He stationed 100,000 troops in Shangyi and Xiaoxi, and another 100,000 troops in Shangzhou and Luonan, recruiting soldiers and buying horses to prepare for war. King Xuan of Chu was furious and wanted to raise troops to punish Wei Yang, but just then a messenger arrived from the front line, reporting that King Wei of Qi was gathering his army and marching south to Suiyang, while King Huiwen of Wei was also marching south to Zhoukou. King Xuan of Chu temporarily put aside his plan to attack Wei Yang and ordered General Qu Wu (the father of Qu Yuan) to lead 100,000 troops to guard Shangnan and Zhechuan, then moved his army to Zhoukou and Fuyang, and another 100,000 troops to Xuzhou and Huaiyin. The armies of Qi and Wei heard the news and dared not march south. The next year, King Xuan of Chu fell ill and died at the end of the year, after reigning for thirty years. Before his death, he still remembered the land in Shangzhou that belonged to Chu.
Before the death of King Xuan of Chu, the territory of Chu State extended east to Linyi, Xuzhou, Huaibei and Yancheng in Shandong Province, bordering with Yue State at Guangling; north to Zhoukou, Fangxian and Ye County in Henan Province; west to Xunyang, Shangyang and Ba and Qian in Sichuan Province. The territory was over 4,000 li wide, with a population of more than 20 million people.
King Xuan of Chu reigned for thirty years, expanding the territory by nearly one thousand li north of Huai River and Si River, but losing the territories of Yuzhou, Gucheng, Danfeng, Shaoxiguan and the ancient path of Shangzhou, totaling several hundred li. One year after King Xuan's death, Duke Xiao of Qin died due to illness, and his son, Duke Huiwen, succeeded him, later known as King Huiwen of Qin, who began to claim himself as a king thirteen years later.
Before the death of Duke Xiao of Qin, the territory of Qin State was over 2,000 li wide, with a population of five million people. The territory expanded to Huayin and Luonan in Guandong, north to Lingbao, and south to Shangluo and Danfeng in Shaannan, totaling one thousand li. However, the territories of Shangzhou, Luonan and Danfeng, with a circumference of 700 li, became the private fiefdom of Wei Yang.
