Chapter 1: The Warring States Period - The struggle for hegemony among the feudal lords, competing for the throne. Shang Yang betrays his promise and breaks the alliance.
Warring States Period
Luō Liè Liè
The mighty Yellow River divides the Han and Jin, The Tong Pass presses down on the head of the Qin king. The Yangtze swallows the precipitous wall, clouds cut off the shore, Overbearing air fills the autumn Lan Gorge. Sky beyond sky, tower beyond tower. Six prefectures, three passes, mountains and rivers gaunt.
The old site is desolate with withered grass, the "Liangzhou" melody plays on a lonely boat. Coming with the east wind, going with the east wind. The sparse shadows lean against the pavilion, still empty as before.
Tune of "Guanshan Ancient"
The fate of the world is unpredictable, and prosperity does not necessarily last forever. The Xia Dynasty once flourished under Emperor Yao and Shun, but today it is the Southern Sea that shines brightly as a symbol of China's glory, spanning 5,000 years in just a brief moment.
The Zhou Dynasty originated from the Western Rong and Northern Di tribes, occupying the Central Plains to inherit the legitimate rule. However, when the Zhou king's virtue declined and his power waned, the vassals became powerful. The Spring and Autumn period saw the rise of five hegemons, who took turns ruling.
Among the five hegemons, the Jin state was the most prosperous, but its vast territory and strong rivers eventually led to its decline and division into three states: Han, Wei, and Zhao. The Jin dynasty never recovered from this downfall, a classic case of self-destruction.
The Qin state originated from the Western Qiang and Di tribes, with a history of bravery on the western borders. It was only after Duke Wen of Chu achieved hegemony that the Qin state began to be recognized as one of the vassal states. However, the Qin state rapidly rose to power and eventually became the ruling dynasty, a classic case of decline leading to prosperity.
By the time of the Warring States period, the Zhou royal house had retreated to Luoyang and was no longer even comparable to the small state of Zhongshan. This is an example of how prosperity does not necessarily last forever.
In the past, the 1,800 vassal states established by King Wu of Zhou had dwindled to just a few dozen, with half of them already absorbed into the Chu state and becoming part of the two-thousand-year-old division between northern and southern China. At this point, only eight states were qualified to contend for hegemony: Chu, Qin, Qi, Wei, Zhao, Han, Yan, and Yue.
The Wei state was the first to gain heaven's mandate and possessed geographical advantages and a strong population, reenacting the Spring and Autumn period as it dominated the world. However, the Chu state had been seeking to unify the vassals since King Zhuang asked about the tripod cauldrons, while the Qi state had been striving for hegemony since Duke Huan's time. The Qin state, on the other hand, sought to inherit the Zhou dynasty and occupy the Central Plains to rule over the world.
It seems that Wei Huai Wang, who wore the crown of the hegemons, would have to face challenges from Chu, Qi, Qin, Zhao, and Yue. So, which state had the qualifications to take over the crown of the hegemons? The answer was obvious: it could only be one of the three states of Chu, Qi, or Qin.
Since the time of King Xuan of Chu, there had been a period of peace and rest. At that time, the power of the three Jin states (Wei, Zhao, and Han) and the two states of Qin and Qi was increasing daily, competing with each other, especially Wei and Qi were flourishing. King Huiwen of Wei launched eastern and western campaigns, invading south and fighting north, becoming the overlord of the world, dominating the whole country.
At that time, Chu and Qin were related by marriage, supporting each other, jointly resisting the southern invasion and western campaign of Wei and Qi, and won victories at Shangluo and Sishui. In the fifth year of King Xuan of Chu, the three Jin states (Wei, Zhao, and Han) launched a western campaign against Qin, Qin fought with Wei and Zhao in the north of Shanxi and west of the Yellow River, and fought with Wei and Han in the south of Luohe, The three Jin states joined forces, defeating the Qin army repeatedly, the Wei army took Huayin and Tongguan in the west of the Yellow River, the Zhao army captured Yuguang and Yan'an in the north of Shanxi, and the Han army took Lingbao to Tongguan.
In the southeastern part of Shanxi, the armies of Wei and Han joined forces, defeating the Qin army at Luonan, and pointed their swords at Shangzhou. When King Xuan of Chu heard the news, he immediately raised an army of 100,000 men, passing through Wuguan (Wu Pass) and Shangyue (Danfeng) to Shangzhou, engaging in a great battle with the combined forces of Han and Wei.
The next year, the combined forces of Chu and Qin, numbering 180,000 men, defeated the 200,000-strong combined forces of Wei and Han at Danyang, Shangzhou, and also defeated the combined forces of Wei and Han at Luonan in the same year. The Wei army retreated to Tongguan and Anyi, while the Han army retreated to the three rivers area of Luodi.
At that time, Chu was a powerful country, with a vast territory of over 3,000 miles, and an army of over 700,000 men, and had been related by marriage to Qin for generations. Therefore, King Xuan of Chu gave the area north of Shangzhou to Duke Xian of Qin, who was deeply grateful.
Later, King Xuan of Chu led his army northward, fighting with the Wei army at Luyang and Yuzhou, defeating the Wei army greatly, recovering the territories of Luyang and Yuzhou, and besieging the Wei army in Xuchang. The Qin army fought with the Wei army at Shimen and Shaoliang, although the Qin army defeated the Wei army greatly, it still could not recover the territory west of the Yellow River.
Years later, Qin Xiangong died and his son Xiaogong succeeded him at the age of 21. In the first year of Qin Xiaogong's reign, there were six powerful countries east of the Yellow River: Qi Weiwang, Chu Xuānwáng, Wei Huìwénwáng, Yan Daowáng, Han Aihóu and Zhao Chenghou stood together. There were still more than a dozen small countries between Huainan and Sishui. Chu, Wei, and Han bordered Qin. Wei built the Great Wall from northwest of present-day Hua County in Shaanxi Province, along the Luo River basin to Jingbian, Yulin, northeast to the Hequ area, occupying the land of Shangjun in the north. Chu had control over Hanzhong, Shangyong, Nanba, and Qianzhong in the south. The Zhou royal house was weak, and the vassals fought for hegemony, competing with each other to annex territories. Qin was still a remote and isolated state in Yongzhou, subject to Wei's bullying in the east and dependent on Chu's support in the south, unable to participate in the alliances of the Central Plains states. Therefore, Qin Xiaogong worked hard to govern, lived frugally, widely bestowed favors, recruited soldiers and bought horses, and made rewards clear. He also issued a proclamation to the world saying: "In the past, my Qin Mugong governed from Qishan and Yongzhou, cultivated virtue and used military force, took control of Guanzhong and Shanbei, pacified the Jin chaos east of the Yellow River, and ruled over the Rongdi in the west, expanding our territory by a thousand miles. The Son of Heaven enfeoffed him as a duke, and all the vassals congratulated him, laying the foundation for the great enterprise of our state. This is indeed a glorious and honorable thing! In the past, when Dukes Ai, You, and Jian were in power, family affairs were not peaceful, and the country was plagued by internal worries, with no leisure to attend to external matters. The three Jin states attacked and seized the land west of the Yellow River from my ancestors, and all the vassals looked down on Qin and its people. This is indeed a hateful thing! When Xiangong came to power, he pacified the borders, moved the capital to Yongcheng, and wanted to launch an eastern campaign to recover the former territory of Mugong and restore his policies. I have always remembered my ancestors' intentions and felt pain in my heart. If there are guests, officials, or scholars from all over the world who can come up with a strange plan to make Qin strong and prosperous, I will honor them as high officials and share the land with them, enjoying the good fortune together." Then, he sent troops to besiege Shencheng in the east and behead the Rongdi king in the west. However, Wei Huìwénwáng was the strongest country in the world at that time, and Qin Xiaogong had no power to resist him, suffering repeated humiliation from the state of Wei.
At that time, Wei Yang heard the Qin Xiaogong's edict to the world and immediately sold his pots and pans, borrowed money from all sides, and managed to meet with Qin Xiaogong. Wei Yang was originally a native of the state of Wei, but for the sake of fame and fortune, he did not hesitate to sell out his wife, daughters, and ancestors, and changed his surname to seek glory. He first relied on someone to meet with King Huiwen of Wei, and in order to please the king, he cut off his ties with the state of Wei, changed his surname to Wei, and named himself Yang, to show his loyalty. When King Huiwen of Wei listened to Wei Yang's so-called rich country and strong military tactics, he said: "Have you heard that a benevolent person has no enemies, and a righteous person can conquer all?" He did not use Wei Yang. Wei Yang went to Qin and changed his surname to Qin and named himself Yang again. Qin Xiaogong summoned Wei Yang and reused him. Therefore, Wei Yang began to reform the law and repair the punishment, imposing various cruel punishments on the people of Qin that were unbearable to see. The result of the cruel officials' harsh punishments was only to treat the people of Qin as tools for killing and slaughter. Wei Yang's military achievements were recorded by cutting off heads and occupying cities, and on the surface, the Qin army seemed very brave, but in reality, they were all motivated by fame and fortune, treating human lives like food, and exterminating humanity. As a result, the state of Qin and its army won the reputation of being a country of tigers and wolves, and an army of jackals and wolves, which was completely opposite to the so-called "Xiaogong" title of Qin Xiaogong. However, can training people to become evil wolves really make them invincible in the world? The ministers of Qin, Gan Long and Du Zuo, did not think so, and they said to Xiaogong: "If Qin wants to go east and form an alliance with the other vassal states, it should first eliminate the misunderstanding of the people of the Central Plains towards Qin, practice great righteousness in the world, spread virtue and kindness to all people, and gain trust from the four seas. This is the foundation of enriching the country and strengthening the military." Wei Yang's law was a technique without ruler or father, and when Qin became the overlord of the world, it would also be the end of its strong crossbow. Qin Xiaogong was eager for quick success and did not listen to the advice of Gan Long, Du Zuo, and others.
In the 16th year of Chu Xuan Wang, Wei Huaiwen Wang launched a southern invasion and clashed with the Chu army south of Xuchang and northwest of Yu Prefecture, Gu Cheng. Both sides deployed 200,000 troops each. The Chu army suffered a great defeat at the hands of the Wei army south of Xuchang. Han Ai Hou sent out 100,000 troops to assist the Wei army in attacking the Chu army. Seeing this, Chu Xuan Wang retreated and defended Fangye, Ruzhou, Yuzhou, and Gu Cheng, which were then occupied by the Han and Wei armies.
Wei Yang took advantage of this opportunity and led the Qin army eastward, engaging the Wei army west of the Yellow River and defeating them at Huayin. The army then pointed towards Tongguan, Hancheng, and Anyi. At that time, the main force of the Wei army was stuck in a stalemate with the Chu army at Xuchang and Yuzhou, leaving the defenses at Huayin and west of the Yellow River relatively weak.
Wei Huaiwen Wang heard the news and hastily dispatched 200,000 troops from Jincheng and Jinzhong to Anyi. He defeated Wei Yang at Hancheng and Tongguan, repelling the Qin army's attack. Wei Yang then led his army southward, attacking the Han army at Luochuan and expanding their territory north of Shangnan.
In the 27th year of Chu Xuan Wang, that is, in 343 BC, King Huiwen of Wei ordered his general Pang Juan to lead an army of 300,000 soldiers to attack Zhao and Qi. The king of Qi, using the strategy of Sun Bin, retreated and feigned weakness, causing the enemy to become arrogant and disorganized, and then launched a surprise attack from the east to the west, defeating Pang Juan at the Battle of Maling, almost annihilating the 300,000-strong Wei army.
The state of Wei, having suffered consecutive years of war, was severely weakened by this defeat. The position of King Huiwen as the overlord of the world began to shake, and the king of Qi became even more arrogant, thinking that he was the only one who could be the overlord of the world.
Wei Yang took advantage of the situation and led 200,000 Qin soldiers eastward to attack the Wei army, intending to capture the land west of the Yellow River in Wei. The Zhao army also took advantage of the situation and launched a full-scale attack on Wei's Anyang.
King Huiwen of Wei faced the invasion of the armies of Qi, Zhao, and Qin, and ordered his generals to fight back against the Qi army at Daliang and Puyang, while he himself led an army to fight against the Zhao army at Handan. However, due to the defeat of Wei's general, Wu Zixu, at Huaxin in the west of the Yellow River, King Huiwen was forced to cede land to Qi and give up Anyang to Zhao, seeking a truce.
Alas! The state of Wei had just suffered a great defeat at Maling, losing tens of thousands of soldiers, and now it had suffered another defeat at Huaxin, losing 100,000 soldiers. Its national strength was declining year by year.
Wei Gongzi Ao was a close friend of Wei Yang, and in the past, when Wei Yang was down on his luck, Wei Gongzi Ao provided him with great help and support. Without Wei Gongzi Ao's assistance, Wei Yang would have long since starved to death on the streets of Wei State.
Wei Gongzi Ao led the vanguard of 200,000 Wei troops from Anyi and Luoyang, and encountered Wei Yang's forward troops at Huayin. Wei Yang thought that his well-trained army was invincible, so he sounded the drums and charged into battle with 50,000 Qin soldiers. However, a great general emerged from the Wei camp, riding a horse and wielding a sword, and charged straight at the Qin army.
This general was none other than Wei Jia, a famous general of Wei State, who was already over 40 years old and had a long white beard. He wielded his sword with great skill, cutting down several Qin generals and charging into the enemy ranks like a hot knife through butter. The Wei soldiers saw this and their morale soared, fighting back against the Qin army.
Wei Jia spotted Wei Yang and pointed his sword at him, shouting: "You shameless Wei Yang! You sold out your lord and sought glory for yourself, without any loyalty or filial piety. I will take your life, you three-surnamed traitor!" With that, he charged at Wei Yang on horseback, causing Wei Yang to turn tail and run.
The Qin generals rushed over to protect their commander, but Wei Jia shouted: "Anyone who blocks my way will die!" He swept his sword across the battlefield, cutting down several Qin generals. Wei Yang took advantage of the chaos to escape into the ranks.
Just then, drums sounded from the west and east directions, signaling the arrival of Wei Yang's main force and Wei Gongzi Ao's reinforcements. Wei Yang retreated 30 li in defeat.
The next day, both sides formed up for battle again. Wei Yang rode forward and bowed his head, saying: "Wei Gongzi Ao, I have come to pay my respects." Wei Gongzi Ao replied: "You and I are sworn brothers, how could I bear to harm you?"
Wei Yang said: "I am grateful for your kindness, but I had no choice but to attack Wei State. Please read this letter, and you will understand everything." He then handed over the letter and retreated back to his camp.
Wei Gongzi Ao returned to his camp and opened the letter, which read: "The Qin king is cruel and has forced me to lead an army against Wei State. I am deeply grateful for your kindness in the past, but I fear that I will not be able to repay you even if I were to die a thousand times. Tonight, at the third watch, let us join forces and destroy the Qin army together."
Wei Gongzi Ao was moved by the letter, but his general Wei Jia said: "Wei Yang is willing to betray his lord and sell out his family for personal gain. How can we trust him?" Wei Gongzi Ao replied: "I treated him like a brother, and now he has sworn an oath of loyalty. How could I doubt his sincerity?"
So Wei Gongzi Ao ignored Wei Jia's warning and ordered his troops to launch a surprise attack on the Qin camp at the third watch, in coordination with Wei Yang. However, they fell into a trap and were defeated, with Wei Gongzi Ao being captured and Wei Jia leading the remnants of their army in retreat back to Tongguan.
Wei Yang then used Wei Gongzi Ao as a bargaining chip to force the king of Wei to cede the land west of the Yellow River to Qin. The king of Wei was forced to agree, and Wei Yang's conscience was finally extinguished. He eventually met a bad end, being torn apart by five horses and struck by lightning.
From then on, the king of Qin looked at Wei Yang in a different light.
In the 28th year of King Xuan of Chu, that is, in 342 BC, there were still a dozen small countries between Huai North and Si Shang. King Xuan of Chu led 300,000 Chu troops to advance eastward to Huai North, while King Wei of Qi led 200,000 Qi troops southward to Si Shang. The king of Yue, also named Hou, led 200,000 Yue troops out of Guangling (Yangzhou) and marched northward to Huai North. Even the ruler of Song, Xuan, led an army of 100,000 eastward to Xuzhou. The four armies clashed in a fierce battle for control of the thousand-li fertile land of Huai North and Si Shang. King Xuan of Chu assessed the situation and first fought against the 200,000 Yue troops led by Hou in Huai North, defeating them greatly in Huai'an and Yancheng, Jiangsu Province. The king of Yue retreated back to Guangling with his defeated army. King Xuan then marched northward, defeating the Song army and Qi troops in Xuzhou, capturing the city, and forcing the ruler of Song to flee back to Shangqiu with his remaining soldiers. Next, the Chu army clashed with the Qi army in a great battle at Zaozhuang and Linqu, with both sides holding their ground for several months and each having victories and defeats. Finally, the Chu army concentrated its superior forces and defeated the Qi army greatly at Zaozhuang, then again defeated them at Linqu, forcing the Qi army to retreat eastward. The Chu army captured the coastal areas of Rizhao, Shandong Province, and Lianyungang, Jiangsu Province. The battle for control of Huai North and Si Shang ended with a complete victory for the Chu army, and except for several small countries in Shandong Province, all the dozen or so small countries in Huai North and Si Shang were incorporated into the territory of Chu.
When Chu Xuanwang was at war with the armies of Qi, Yue and Song in Huai Bei, Wei Yang ignored the alliance between Chu and Qin and led 200,000 Qin soldiers to take advantage of the fact that the main force of the Chu army had gone east. At Languan, the Qin army split into two routes: one went east from Luosuo and the other went east from Shangluo Ancient Road. The two routes converged in Shangzhou, driving away hundreds of Chu soldiers stationed in Danjiang area southwest of Shangzhou. Then, they marched eastward again, capturing Danying and Shaoshi Pass (Wuguan) guarded by thousands of Chu soldiers, and dispatched a large army to garrison Shangluo, Danying and Shaoshi Pass. The territory north of the Dan River, west of Shaoshi, and the entire Shangluo Ancient Road were incorporated into Qin's territory.
When Chu Xuanwang heard the news, he ordered 100,000 Chu soldiers to guard Huai Bei, Xuzhou and Pixiang, and led 200,000 Chu soldiers back to Jingzhou. Chu Xuanwang sent an envoy to ask Qin Xiaogong: "Chu and Qin have been allies for generations, with a close relationship like brothers. In the past, I sent troops to help Qin defeat the three Jin states and gave your father, Duke Xian of Qin, 700 miles of land from Luosuo to Lingbao. It was agreed that Shangzhou and the ancient road of Shangzhou would be jointly owned and managed by Chu and Qin. Now you take advantage of my eastward expedition and send troops to attack Shangluo, driving away my garrison in Shangzhou, Danying and Shaoshi. What is your reason? Do you want to break the alliance between Chu and Qin and become enemies with our country?"
Duke Xiao of Qin wept and said, "All these are the deeds of Wei Yang behind my back. I can only blame myself for giving him the command of 200,000 troops in the past, and now it's too late to regret." The envoy from Chu returned to Jingdu and reported to King Xuan of Chu. As soon as the envoy left, Duke Xiao of Qin immediately sent a messenger to Wei Yang, saying, "You have made great contributions to Qin, and I originally wanted to share the rule of Qin with you. Now that King Xuan of Chu has sent an envoy, he will surely send troops to punish us. What can we do? I will give you 700 li of land in Shangzhou, Loshan, and Danfeng, and appoint you as a marquis, enfeoffing you as Marquis of Shang. You can establish yourself independently and don't need to return to Xianyang." Wei Yang didn't know what was going on, but he followed the order and established himself as Marquis of Shang, changing his name to Shang Yang. He then ordered his soldiers to build a large-scale city wall from Shangluo to Shangnan (in present-day Danfeng County), blocking the ancient road from Shangzhou to Shangnan, and reinforcing the Xiaoxing Pass. He stationed 100,000 troops in Shangyue and Xiaoxing, and another 100,000 troops in Shangzhou and Loshan, and recruited more soldiers and horses to prepare for war. King Xuan of Chu was furious and wanted to send troops to punish Wei Yang, but just then a messenger arrived from the front line, reporting that King Wei of Qi was gathering his army and marching south to Sishui, while King Huiwen of Wei was also sending troops south to Zhoukou. King Xuan of Chu temporarily put aside his plan to attack Wei Yang and ordered General Qu Wu (the father of Qu Yuan) to lead 100,000 Chu soldiers to guard Shangnan and Zhechuan, then moved his army to Zhoukou and Fuyang, and another 100,000 troops to Xuzhou and HuaiBei. The armies of Qi and Wei heard the news and dared not march south. The next year, King Xuan of Chu fell ill and died at the end of the year, after reigning for 30 years. Before his death, he still remembered the land in Shangzhou that belonged to Chu.
Before the death of King Xuan of Chu, the territory of Chu State extended east to Linyi, Xuzhou, Huaibei and Yancheng in Shandong Province, bordering with Yue State at Guangling; north to Zhoukou, Fangxian and Ye County in Henan Province; west to Xunyang, Shangyang and Ba and Qian in Sichuan Province. The territory was over 4,000 li wide, with a population of more than 20 million people.
King Xuan of Chu reigned for thirty years, expanding the territory by nearly one thousand li north of Huai River and Si River, but losing the territories of Yuzhou, Gucheng, Danfeng, Shaoxiguan and the ancient path of Shangzhou, totaling several hundred li. One year after King Xuan's death, Duke Xiao of Qin died due to illness, and his son, Duke Huiwen, succeeded him, later known as King Huiwen of Qin, who began to claim himself as a king thirteen years later.
Before the death of Duke Xiao of Qin, the territory of Qin State was over 2,000 li wide, with a population of five million people. The territory expanded to Huayin and Luonan in Guandong, north to Lingbao, and south to Shangluo and Danfeng in Shaannan, totaling one thousand li. However, the territories of Shangzhou, Luonan and Danfeng, with a circumference of 700 li, became the private fiefdom of Wei Yang.
